Terminology around false or misleading information

• Misinformation: This refers to false or inaccurate information, but crucially, it includes cases where the falsehoods are spread without malicious intent. The person sharing misinformation typically believes that the information is true and does not intend to deceive others. For example, sharing a news article containing errors or outdated facts without knowing that it's incorrect would be considered spreading misinformation.

• Disinformation: Unlike misinformation, disinformation is false information deliberately created and disseminated with the intent to deceive or mislead others. This is a more insidious form, often used in propaganda, where the source knows that the information is false or misleading but shares it anyway to manipulate public opinion or obscure the truth.

• Fake News: Initially used to describe news stories that were completely fabricated or grossly misleading, the term "fake news" has evolved and is sometimes used controversially or politically to discredit reporting that is accurate but unwelcome or critical. In its truest form, fake news is a type of disinformation, where the content is intentionally false and designed to look like credible journalism to mislead readers.

• IO (Information Operations): This term is broader and encompasses military and political operations that are intended to influence an audience's opinion or behavior. Information operations can involve the creation, dissemination, and control of information and can use a mix of true and false information. These operations might be designed to deceive, confuse, or influence the views of the target audience and can involve elements of both misinformation and disinformation depending on the tactics used.

• Propaganda: Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. It often involves emotional appeals, lies, and disinformation to influence public opinion or obscure the truth.

• Hoax: A hoax is a deliberately fabricated falsehood made to masquerade as truth. It's intended to deceive or trick an audience into believing or doing something. Unlike regular disinformation, which can have major political or social implications, hoaxes are often crafted for amusement or to create sensationalism.

• Conspiracy Theory: This refers to a theory that explains an event or situation as the result of a secret, and often sinister, plot by a covert group or organization. While some conspiracy theories turn out to be true, many are based on speculative, unverified, or outright false information and are a form of disinformation or misinformation depending on the intent and belief of those spreading them.

• Deepfake: Deepfakes are highly realistic and convincing digital manipulations of audio or video, typically using artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies. They can be used to create false representations of individuals saying or doing things that never actually happened, which can be a powerful tool for disinformation.

• Echo Chamber: This term describes a situation where information, ideas, or beliefs are amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition inside a defined system. In social media, echo chambers occur when users are exposed primarily to opinions that mirror their own, often due to algorithmic filtering. This can increase misinformation, as contradictory evidence and opinions are underrepresented or absent.

• Filter Bubble: Similar to an echo chamber, a filter bubble is a state of intellectual isolation that can result from personalized searches when a website algorithm selectively guesses what information a user would like to see based on past search history and behavior. This means users become separated from information that disagrees with their viewpoints, effectively isolating them in their own cultural or ideological bubbles.

• Confirmation Bias: This is a cognitive bias that describes the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities. Confirmation bias can contribute to the spread of misinformation, as people might choose to believe and share information that supports their personal beliefs, regardless of its veracity.

• Astroturfing: This is a practice intended to give the impressions of spontaneous, grassroots behavior or opinion, whereas in reality, it's an orchestrated effort often sponsored by corporations or political groups. The goal is to mask the sponsors' identities to make it appear as though there is a genuine, independent public support for a particular message.

• Gaslighting: A form of psychological manipulation in which a person or group covertly sows seeds of doubt in a targeted individual or group, making them question their own memory, perception, or judgment. It often involves the denial or distortion of factual information, and while it's more commonly associated with personal relationships, it can also be observed in a broader socio-political context.

• Social Bots: These are automated accounts on social media platforms that are programmed to mimic human users. They can be used for benign purposes, such as delivering information or managing repetitive tasks. However, they're also used in misinformation campaigns to artificially amplify a particular message, create an illusion of widespread support for a cause or opinion, or to manipulate online discourse and public opinion.

• Troll/Trolling: Internet trolling involves posting inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic messages in an online community, such as a forum, chat room, or blog, with the intent of provoking other users into an emotional response or of otherwise disrupting normal on-topic discussion. This can also include broader strategies to sow discord, confuse, or harass others online, often anonymously.

Each of these concepts plays a significant role in how information is shared, interpreted, and manipulated online. Understanding them can help individuals better navigate digital spaces, critically evaluate information, and engage in more informed and constructive online interactions.